Causes and Effects of the Air France 447 Crash

Causes and Effects of the Air France 447 Crash Air France Flight 447 was an international, long-haul passenger flight, from Rio de Janeiro to Paris. On 1st June 2009 the aircraft crashed into the Atlantic Ocean killing everybody on board. The aircraft is thought to have crashed due to temporary inconsistencies between airspeed measurements, caused by the aircrafts pitot tubes being blocked by ice crystals. Ultimately, the autopilot disconnecting and the crew reacting incorrectly, led the aircraft to an aerodynamic stall from which they did not recover (BEA, 2012). The accident resulted from a combination of factors relating to both the technology of the aircraft and the training of the crew (BEA, 2012). The technological failures were: poor feedback mechanisms, unclear display of airspeed readings, confusing stall warnings, absence of visual information and poor indications by the Flight Director. Failures in training resulted in the crew; not responding to the stall warning, not being trained in icing of the Pitot tubes and lacking practical training in manually handling the aircraft. Moreover, incomprehension of the situation and poor management of emotions weakened the task sharing ability of the co-pilots. This accident has highlighted a number of human automation issues in aviation. Automated flight-control functions can remove some danger from aviation, however it also changes the activities, workloads, situation awareness and skill levels of the operators, which can cause problems (Hodgson, Siemieniuch Hubbard, 2013). The first problem highlighted by this accident is the crew’s change of role from operator to monitor. Flight deck automation uses the crew’s ability to perform a passive monitoring role, rather than an active operating role. One problem associated with this is a drop in vigilance (Mackworth, 1948), which is exacerbated when a system is highly reliable (Parasuraman, Molloy Singh, 1993). However, these accidents are not human operator errors, they are automation system design errors. More importantly, the crash of Flight 447 was partly attributed due to loss of situation awareness, possibly due to pilots having to perform a passive monitoring role. Monitoring roles can reduce the situation awareness of the current â€Å"flying state† of the aircraft, as well as the awareness of its predicted future behaviour (Sarter Woods, 1995). Lack of situation awareness can also be an outcome of complex automation, such as a having a complicated flight automation system which can result in pilot confusion due to poor interface design. In the case of Flight 447 the BEA (2010) report shows that a poor Human Computer Interface played a main part in the crash. There were a number of reasons for this: the Flight Director display was inaccurate, therefore accounting for most of the wrong pitch-up inputs due to an altimeter error. Airspeed inconsistencies that had been identified by computers were not clearly displayed. Failure messages were generated but only showed the consequences not the origin of the problem. There was no indication of a blocked pitot tube on the flight displays. There was also an absence of Angle of Attack information, which is important in identifying and preventing a stall. This information was sent to on-board computers but there were no displays to convey this information. Furthermore, as the level and complexity of automation increases, the levels of experience and skill needed to be able to recover from a failure or unexpected situation have increased (Hodgson, Siemieniuch Hubbard, 2013). This is because there is less time for the operator to become aware of and correct developing problems. For example in Flight 447 the crew had less than three minutes to find the problem and take action. Additionally, in the case of aircraft, the ability to recover from a failure or unexpected situation relies on the crews manual flying abilities too. However, with highly automated aircrafts there is a loss of manual flying skills experienced by pilots (Wood, 2004). Fanjoy and Young (2005) found that training and airline policies on automation, often lead to a lack of opportunities to practice resulting in pilot complacency as well as the deterioration of flying skills. Furthermore, Young, Fanjoy and Suckow (2006) found that crews who used the most flight deck automation had poorer manual flying skills than others. This has implications when there is an abnormal situation in which the automation system disengages without prior warning, as the crews will rely on their manual flying skills. Furthermore, automation will maintain stability until it is no longer possible, resulting in the aircraft going out of control as the flight crew take over, meaning crews need to have good manual fl ying skills. A further problem with this is that automation increases mental workload during high-load periods (Funk et al, 1999). This workload problem increases when there are situations that need further mental workload during an already high workload time. When the crew’s workload is high, developing failures of the automation system are more likely to be allowed to develop into a critical situation. For example, if damage has occurred or instrumentation has failed, the Flight Management System advice is often misleading or incorrect, and flight crews can be overloaded with a vast amount of information and alarms, making it difficult to identify what the problem is. For example, the crew of the A447 were faced with more than 50 simultaneous alarms.One alarm after another lit up the cockpit monitors. One after another, the autopilot, the automatic engine control system, and the flight computers shut themselves off (Traufetter, 2010). This lead to them not being able to understand or ide ntify what the problem was before it turned into a critical situation, ultimately ending in disaster. The above problem could be due automation being an inadequate crew member. Automation can act as a poorly trained, incommunicative member of the system’s crew. There is often poor interaction between crews and automation systems (Norman, 1990), yet there is a need for multisensory feedback to crews (Sarter 1999). In order for a crew to achieve a safe level of shared situation awareness, the automated system must become part of the crew. It needs to do this by communicating its adjustments in order to maintain shared situation awareness. Current automated systems may indicate adjustments on a dial or screen, but they do not typically draw attention to them because they lack situation awareness of the â€Å"bigger picture.† Clear communication can prevent accidents. For example in Flight 447 if there would have been clear communication that the pitot tube was frozen then this would have stopped the chain of events from unfolding. To improve automation it is proposed that aircraft should be made into more effective team players. A human–automation team should be defined as â€Å"the dynamic, interdependent coupling between one or more human operators and one or more automated systems requiring collaboration and coordination to achieve successful task completion† (Cuevas, Fiore, Caldwell Strater, 2007). Current automation systems perform as very inadequate team members, leaving the human operators or crew unprepared when failure occurs or unusual events arise. (Hodgson, Siemieniuch Hubbard, 2013). To improve human-automation interaction, systems should be able to trade and share control so that interacting with a system is more like interacting with a teammate (Scerbo, 2007). Future systems, such as Free Flight, are envisioned to have human–automation teams sharing and trading tasks (Inagaki, 2003) as situational demands change (van Dongen van Maanen, 2005). Such dynamic situations creat e occasions where human–automation teams can implicitly coordinate (Rico, Sanchez-Manzanares, Gil Gibson, 2008) on an almost exclusively cognitive basis (Hoc, 2001). This would enable automation systems to become good team players. Furthermore, good team players make their activities observable for fellow team players, and are easy to direct (Christofferson Woods, 2002). To be observable, automation activities should be presented in ways that capitalise on human strengths (Klein 1998). For example; they should be: Event-based: representations need to highlight changes and events, Future-oriented: Human operators in dynamic systems need support for anticipating changes and knowing what to expect and where to look next and Pattern-based: operators must be able to quickly scan displays and pick up possible abnormalities without having to engage in difficult cognitive work. By relying on pattern-based representations, automation can change difficult mental tasks into straightfo rward perceptual ones. Overall, changes in workload, reduced situation awareness, reduced operator skills, automation failures and unexpected behaviours have caused many accidents over the past three decades, including flight 447. As a result of these factors, manual recovery when the automation system fails is often compromised. These issues may have been exacerbated by having a tightly coupled system. Tight coupling reduces the ability to recover from small failures before they expand into large ones. Tighter coupling between parts spreads effects throughout the system more rapidly. This means that problems have greater and more complex effects that can spread quickly. When automated partners are strong, silent, clumsy and difficult to direct, then handling these demands becomes more difficult. The result is coordination failures and new forms of system failure. Currently it is argued that aircraft systems are only moderately tightly coupled. However, airlines, for financial reasons, are pressing for a r eduction of flight crews from three (pilot, co-pilot, and engineer) to two (pilot and co-pilot) on the grounds that computers and other devices reduce the engineering load. More automation in its system and reducing the number of controllers will lead to much tighter coupling resulting in less resources for recovery from incidents (Perrow, 2011). Now the problems with the automation in Flight 447 have been identified, it is important to understand how safety models contributed to the understanding of the accident and what the implications are for managing safety in the future, to prevent history from repeating itself. The first safety model and safety management strategy is known as Safety-I. According to Safety-I, things go wrong due to technical, human and organisational causes such as failures and malfunctions, with humans being viewed as a main hazard. The safety management principle is to react when something goes wrong; by investigating and identifying the causes of the accident and then trying to eliminate the causes or improve barriers. This results in safety being a condition where the number of adverse outcomes is as low as possible. The principles of safety-1 have been expressed by many different accident models; the best known accident model being the Swiss cheese model (Reason, 1990). This model posits that accidents occur due to multiple factors jointly. These factors align creating a possible trajectory for an accident. These can either be latent conditions, such as problems with the organisation due to its design or management, which are present in the organisation long before an incident is triggered. Active failures are mistakes made by human operators, which when combined with the latent failures, result in an accident. It states that that no one failure, human or technical, is sufficient to cause an accident. Rather, it happens due to the unlikely and often unforeseeable event of several contributing factors arising from different levels of the system. In the case of Flight 447 the model would allow each contributing factor to be identified. For example the technical faults would be: the Human Computer Interface, pitot tubes, controls not being linked between pilots, misleading stall warnings. Human faults would be the Co-pilot pulling back on stick, poor management of startle effect, poor communication and the captain leaving the room. Organisational faults would be poor training, delayed installing new pitot tubes, poor design of HCI. When put together all of these factors played a part in causing the accident. Looking for human errors after an event is a â€Å"safe† choice, as they can always be found in hindsight. Looking and finding human errors makes it easier to find who should be held accountable and where preventative measures should be aimed. However, when â€Å"the cause† has been attributed to individual error, the preventative measures are usually misaimed. Accidents occur from a combination of many factors and by blaming the individual, people often assume that the system is safe, as soon as it can get rid of the â€Å"bad apples†. However more recently, a proactive model of safety has been suggested. Proactive safety management is part of the aim of Safety-II, which argues that focusing on cases of failure does not show how to improve safety and that instead of looking at what goes wrong, there should be a focus on looking at what goes right in order to understand how that happens. In hindsight after an accident, many weaknesses existing in organisations are usually revealed. For example, detect the â€Å"deviations† from rules and regulation and find the â€Å"cause†. However, the fact that something did deviate from a prescribed rule is not necessarily a contributor to an accident or even an abnormal event. On the contrary, adaptations are often a norm rather than an exception (Reimana Rollenhagen, 2011). It should be acknowledged that the everyday performance variability needed to respond to varying conditions is the reason why things go right. Humans are consequently seen as a resource neces sary for system flexibility and resilience. The safety management principle is continuously to anticipate developments and events. When something goes wrong, we should begin by understanding how it usually goes right, instead of searching for specific causes that only explain the failure. This strategy posits that accidents are not resultant but emergent. In consequence of this, the definition of safety should be changed from ‘avoiding that something goes wrong’ to ‘ensuring that everything goes right’. The basis for safety and safety management must therefore be an understanding of why things go right, which means understanding everyday activities. Safety management must be proactive, so that interventions are made before something happens. In the case of Flight 447 safety management needs to ask: What could have been done before that flight to minimise the possible risks associated with it? (McDonald Ydalus, 2010) The risks were built into the operational situation before take-off. Routine measures in advance could not just prevent this accident happening again but provide a more general preventive shield against a wide range of system accidents. This has been explained in a FRAM analysis model (Hollagenel, 2004). In this model there is a need to understand the essential system functions, their variability and how these can resonate, in order to identify barriers for safety. Furthermore, another way to understand why an accident occurred is to determine why the control structure was ineffective (Leveson, 2004). Preventing future accidents requires designing a control structure that will enforce the necessary constraints. In systems theory, systems are seen as hierarchical structures, where each level puts constraints on the activity of the level below. This means that constraints or a lack of constraints at a higher level allow or control behaviour at a lower level (Checkland, 1981). The cause of an accident is viewed as the result of a lack of constraints due to inadequate enforcement of constraints on behaviour at each level of a socio-technical system. The model has two basic hierarchical control structures; one for system development and one for system operation, with interactions between them. Between the hierarchical levels of each control structure, good communication channels are needed. A downward reference channel provides the information needed to apply constraints on the level below and an upward measuring channel provides feedback about how effectively the constraints were applied. At each level, inadequate control may result from missing constraints, inadequately communicated constraints, or from constraints that are not enforced correctly at a lower level. (Leveson, 2011). Therefore, understanding why an accident occurred requires determining why the control structure was ineffective and preventing future accidents requires designing a control structure that will enforce the necessary constraints. Therefore the implications for managing safety are that by combining safety-I and safety-II techniques, so that there is a proactive focus looking at how everyday activities go right, then accidents could be prevented by being able to identify the organisational and societal problems, which can then be changed before an accident happens, for example by making sure the right constraints are in place. Overall, pilots are part of a complex human-automation system that can both increase and reduce the probability of an accident. Training, automation systems, and cockpit procedures can be changed so that certain mistakes will not be made again. However, it could be that with the inclusion of the humans and their variability, there will always be the possibility of an accident. However turning automation systems into effective team players may transform aviation, preventing avoidable catastrophes. Furthermore, safety management strategies should focus on how to be proactive in order to identify potential accidents before they happen, focusing on how variability and adjustments are a part of what goes right in everyday performance, which may prevent accidents from happening.

Forces Keeping Romeo And Juliet Apart in Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet :: William Shakespeare Romeo and Juliet

Romeo and Juliet are madly in love with each other and will go to any lengths to be together. To support my thesis that the conflict between the heads of the Montague and Capulet families are responsible for Romeo and Juliet's death, I quote from Romeo and Juliet (V, iii, 291-293) Prince: "... Capulet! Montague! See, what a scourge is laid upon your hate, that heaven finds means to kill your joys with love! What the Prince is saying is that, see what dreadful punishment has been laid upon your hatred. Heaven finds a reason to kill your joys with their love!" There are many forces in the tragic play of Romeo and Juliet that are keeping the two young, passionate lovers apart, all emanating from one main reason. In this essay I will discuss these as well as how love, in the end, may have been the cause that led to the tragic deaths of Romeo and Juliet. Their strong attraction to each other, which some call fate, determines where their forbidden love will take them. The leading force, in my opinion, that led to Romeo and Juliet's death is the conflict between the two fathers, Capulet and Montague. It's because of this conflict that Romeo and Juliet feel they must hide their love which, in the end, is the cause of their deaths. Because of this conflict, confrontations occurred and insults were thrown. Hatred is bred which is evident when Tybalt, who is Lady Capulet's nephew, joins the fight against the Montague family. Tybalt hates Romeo and doesn't hesitate to let it be known. The next force is hatred and it is widespread and commonplace in this play, it sometimes seems necessary for others to join the fight in order to portray loyalty for a particular person. Romeo wanted the fighting to end so he could announce his love and marriage to Juliet so he wasn't happy when his best friend, Mercuto, decided to stick up for him against Tybalt. In desperation, Romeo intervenes between the two, which in turn breaks Mercuto's concentration and allows Tybalt to stab him. Like any good friend, Romeo now has to challenge this death and fight Tybalt. Romeo kills Tybalt, which ultimately leads to his banishment. Romeo spent one night of passion with Juliet before going into "hiding" after killing Tybalt. He chose to hide in the Mantua countryside where nobody would recognize him.

Abstract of 3D InternetÂÂ

Abstract  of 3D Internet Also known as virtual worlds, the  3D Internet  is a powerful new way for you to reach consumers, business customers, co-workers, partners, and students. It combines the immediacy of television, the versatile content of the Web, and the relationship-building strengths of social networking sites like  Face book  . Yet unlike the passive experience of television, the  3D Internet  is inherently interactive and engaging. Virtual worlds provide immersive 3D experiences that replicate (and in some cases exceed) real life. People who take part in virtual worlds stay online longer with a heightened level of interest.To take advantage of that interest, diverse businesses and organizations have claimed an early stake in this fast-growing market. They include technology leaders such as  IBM, Microsoft, and Cisco, companies such as BMW, Toyota , Circuit City , Coca Cola, and Calvin Klein, and scores of universities, including Harvard, Stanford and Penn S tate . Introduction of  3D Internet The success of 3D communities and mapping applications, combined with the falling costs of producing 3D environments, are leading some analysts to predict that a dramatic shift is taking place in the way people see and navigate the Internet.The appeal of 3D worlds to consumers and vendors lies in the level of immersion that the programsoffer. The experience of interacting with another character in a 3D environment, as opposed to a screen name or a flat image, adds new appeal to the act of socializing on the Internet. Advertisements in Microsoft's Virtual Earth  3D mapping  application are placed as billboards and signs on top of buildings, blending in with the application's urban landscapes. 3D worlds also hold benefits beyond simple social interactions.Companies that specialize in interior design or furniture showrooms, where users want to view entire rooms from a variety of angles and perspectives, will be able to offer customized models t hrough users'  homePCs  . Google representatives report that the company Google is preparing a new revolutionary product called Google Goggles, an interactive visor that will present Internet content in three dimensions. Apparently the recent rumors of a Google phone refers to a product that is much more innovative than the recent Apple iPhone.Google's new three dimensional virtual reality  : nyone putting on â€Å"the Googgles† – as the insiders call them – will be immersed in a three dimensional â€Å"stereo-vision† virtual reality called 3dLife. 3dLife is a pun referring to the three dimensional nature of the interface, but also a reference to the increasingly popular Second Life virtual reality. The â€Å"home page† of 3dLife is called â€Å"the Library†, a virtual room with virtual books categorized according to the Dewey system. Each book presents a knowledge resource within 3dLife or on the regular World Wide Web.If you pick the book for Pandia, Google will open the Pandia Web site within the frame of a virtual painting hanging on the wall in the virtual library. However, Google admits that many users may find this too complicated. Apparently Google is preparing a new revolutionary product called Google Goggles, an interactive visor which will display Internet content in three dimensions. A 3D mouse lets you move effortlessly in all dimensions. Move the 3D mouse controller cap to zoom, pan and rotate simultaneously. The 3D mouse is a virtual extension of your body – and the ideal way to navigate virtual worlds like Second Life.The Space Navigator is designed for precise control over 3D objects in virtual worlds. Move, fly and build effortlessly without having to think about keyboard commands, which makes the experience more lifelike. Controlling your avatar with this 3D mouse is fluid and effortless. Walk or fly spontaneously, Hands on: Exit Reality: The idea behind ExitReality is that when browsing the web in the old-n-busted 2D version you're undoubtedly using now, you can hit a button to magically transform the site into a 3D environment that you can walk around in and virtually socialize with other users visiting the same site.This shares many of the same goals as Google's Lively (which, so far, doesn't seem so lively), though ExitReality is admittedly attempting a few other tricks. Installation is performed via an executable file which places ExitReality shortcuts in Quick Launch and on the desktop, but somehow forgets to add the necessary ExitReality button to  Firefox's toolbar  . After adding the button manually and repeatedly being told our current version was out of date, we were ready to 3D-ify some websites and see just how much of reality we could leave in two-dimensional ust. Exit Reality is designed to offer different kinds of 3D environments that center around spacious rooms that users can explore and customize, but it can also turn some sites like Flickr i nto virtual museums, hanging photos on virtual walls and halls. Strangely, it's treating Ars Technical as an image gallery and presenting it as a malformed  3D gallery  . 3D Shopping  is the most effective way to shop online. DInternet dedicated years of research and development and has developed the worlds' first fully functional, interactive and collaborative shopping mall where online users can use our 3DInternet's Hyper-Reality technology to navigate and immerse themselves in a Virtual Shopping Environment. Unlike real life, you won't get tired running around a mall looking for that perfect gift; you won't have to worry about your kids getting lost in the crowd; and you can finally say goodbye to waiting in long lines to check out.

Othello By William Shakespeare s Othello - 922 Words

Emilia found it and took it to Iago, who left it for Cassio to find; Cassio in turn, gave it to his mistress. To add to his suspicions, Iago sets Othello up to hear Cassio s discussion regarding his mistress Bianca; however, Othello believes he is referring to Desdemona. This situation only becomes worse when Bianca produces a copy of Othello s handkerchief, and believing it to be his own he strikes Desdemona in his rage. Othello first asks Emilia to confirm Desdemona s unfaithfulness, but she cannot; therefore, he confronts Desdemona herself. Obviously astounded by the accusation, Desdemona is devastated. Meanwhile, Iago again tricks Roderigo- this time into killing Cassio in order to keep Desdemona in Cyprus. Roderigo again starts a fight with Cassio, but Cassio injures him, thus Iago injures Cassio himself. Othello, believing that Iago and has killed Cassio, leaves to again confront Desdemona. Wanting to rid himself of any potential threat, Iago kills Roderigo. As Othello is confronting Desdemona, he tells her to wake up and pray as he would not kill thy unprepared spirit (5.2.33). After explaining his reasoning for killing her, he smothers Desdemona with a pillow. Emilia finds her mistress murdered at Othello s hand and is told that her husband, honest Iago, confirmed Desdemona s adultery. Upon hearing this she, proceeds to tell him the truth of Iago s deception. Iago murders his wife for her betrayal, but Othello only manages to injure him. Finally knowingShow MoreRelatedOthello : William Shakespeare s Othello2542 Words   |  11 Pages3 March 2015 Othello Introduction Shakespeare is the second most quoted writer in the English language – after the various writers of the Bible. Many of Shakespeare’s ideas for the play Othello came from a collection of tales written by Giraldi Cinthio. In Othello the character of Iago acts as the prominent main character throughout the play, even though he plays the role of the antagonist to the other central characters in the comedy Iago is the tragic hero. Shakespeare’s Othello was not justRead MoreOthello By William Shakespeare s Othello Essay1230 Words   |  5 Pages Previously, in Act 3.4, Othello begins to suspect Desdemona’s loyalty, as he continuously asks Desdemona for the handkerchief, yet she keeps on changing the topic. In Act 4.1, Iago continues to convince Othello of Desdemona’s faithfulness. In Act 3.4, Othello defended Desdemona when Iago accused her; but in Act 4.1, their position is switched. Othello becomes more aware of what Iago is saying and the anger t hat he has towards Iago has significantly reduced, while he begins to doubt Desdemona.Read MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Othello And Othello1720 Words   |  7 PagesDejenara Williams Ms.Milliner EES21QH-04 January ,18,2017 In this world there are two different types of people. There are those with a fixed mindset and others with a growth mindset . Each of these mindset involve different personality and characteristics. This may create a different outlook on life, meaning different morals and actions. Which happens to come into play while reading shakespeare s Othello. Most of the characters , maybe even all fit into either categories. CharactersRead MoreOthello By William Shakespeare s Othello Essay977 Words   |  4 Pages In William Shakespeare s Othello, Iago s character is perhaps the most appalling scalawag. 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However, society’s inability to understand or accept different culturesRead MoreOthello s Othello By William Shakespeare897 Words   |  4 PagesIago’s main reason to denigrate Desdemona’s character is his love for Othello. Consequently, he will do anything to gain Othello’s admiration. When Iago is putting his plan into action and planting in Othello’s mind that Desdemona is not faithful to him, Iago says: Othello kneels .............................................................................................. IAGO: Do not rise yet. Iago kneels Witness, you ever-burning lights above, You elements that clip us round above, Witness thatRead MoreOthello s Othello By William Shakespeare848 Words   |  4 Pages Desdemona’s Passivity [In the Shakespeare’s play â€Å"Othello†] Desdemona is a passive character in the Shakespeare play â€Å"Othello†. We can identify this as a fault in Desdemona, in various acts and scenes throughout the play. A critic had stated that â€Å"Desdemona is passive, acted upon rather than acting.† This is a valid statement which is noticeable in Desdemona’s character. When Desdemona argues Cassio’s position that Othello stripped from him. We see from this that she could have actedRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Othello 1386 Words   |  6 Pagesblood-crimson of lust and the jade-green of jealously are but two of the vast palate required to paint this inescapable human passion. William Shakespeare’s store of colors is unrivaled. No human failing, foible or foolishness escapes his gentle, comedic reproof. He equally enjoins his audience to venture as bravely as he does into the palpable horror of love gone amiss. In â€Å"OTHELLO,†Ã¢â‚¬Å"MACBETH,† and many more dramas, l ove’s fatal potential to provoke vengeance or the quest for earthly power is powerfully feltRead MoreOthello By William Shakespeare s Othello1209 Words   |  5 PagesOthello Down Shakespeare s Othello comprises of the subjects betrayal, affection and dishonesty. At the focal point of this play is the lamentable ruin of Othello because of his so-called friend Iago. In this paper I will be examining the explanations behind and against Othello being in charge of his defeat through taking a gander at critical interpretations of his character and activities. Othello was profoundly in charge to his own destruction as Iago demonstrating to him to be gullible andRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Othello And Othello1385 Words   |  6 PagesFor the time Othello was set in, 16th century Elizabethan society held strong socioeconomic roles that governed social statuses. In Shakespeare’s Othello, class positions become a theme that emphasizes power as a major role in relationships. In the case of Othello, a general of the Venetian army, and Iago, one of his trusted advisors, that power struggle is the force that dominants the play and leads to the disastrous and memorable ending. Machiavelli’s treatise, The Prince, examines the dynamic